Intro to Stylistics: Linguistics of Meaning

Lexis – this linguistic category falls under word construction and meaning and generally defined as the total word stock and usage that depends on choice and appropriateness. The presence of multi-word lexical items in the lexis is what differentiates it from vocabulary - the collection of only single words.


Example:
traffic light, take care of, by the way and don't count your chickens before they hatch. 


Lexis means the vocabulary of a language as opposed to other aspects such as the grammar of the text. Lexis is clearly an important aspect of creating a suitable style or register (i.e. when choosing language and language features to suit a particular genre, context, audience and purpose).


Lexis and semantics are very close and often used interchangeably.


Lexical cohesion occurs when words have an affinity for each other as in collocations.Many words are habitually put together - or collocated. A collocation is any habitually linked group of words - a kind of lexical partnership, e.g. 'fish and chips', 'salt and pepper', 'don't mention it', 'it's nothing...', 'Oh well!', 'bangers and mash'... and so on.


Semantics is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of words, phrases and sentences, however, contrary to pragmatics it does not analyze the intended speaker meaning, or what words denote on a given occasion, but the objective, conventional meaning. Additionally, it is concerned with the conceptual meaning and not the associative meaning. The conceptual meaning is what a word in fact denotes, as for example Friday the 13 th is a day between Thursday the 12 th and Saturday the 14 th, and that is the conceptual meaning of the phrase Friday the 13 th. Yet, for many people the idea of that day brings to mind thoughts of bad luck and misfortune, which is the associative meaning.


The meaning of words is analyzed in several different ways in order to account for as many aspects of meaning as possible. First of all, words are analyzed in terms of their semantic features that is basic elements which enable the differentiation of meaning of words.



A semantic feature is a notational method which can be used to express the existence or non-existence of semantic properties by using plus and minus signs.


Man is [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [+ADULT]
Woman is [+HUMAN], [-MALE], [+ADULT]
Boy is [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [-ADULT]
Girl is [+HUMAN], [-MALE], [-ADULT]


Intersecting semantic classes share the same features.


Some features need not be specifically mentioned as their presence or absence is obvious from another feature. This is a redundancy rule.



Apart from the semantic features of words also semantic roles (sometimes called ‘thematic roles’) are examined. Semantic roles describe the way in which words are used in sentences and the functions they fulfill. Thus, the entity that performs an action is known as an agent, while the entity involved in an action is called the theme (or ‘patient). When an agent uses an entity in order to do something this entity is called an instrument. However, when a person in a sentence does not perform any action, but only has a perception, state of feeling then the role is described as experiencer. Finally there are roles connected with motion or position of entities. So, the location is where an entity is, the source is the initial position of the entity, the place where it moves from and the goal is where the entity moves to.


One other issue investigated by semantics is the relationship between words, some of which are known to almost every language user, others very abstract and vague for a common speaker. To begin with the simplest relationship between words let us have a look at synonymy. Synonyms are two words with very similar, almost identical meaning, such as buy and purchase, or cab and taxi. In some cases however, although the meaning seems nearly identical there is a difference in the word usage or the level of formality and therefore the words can not always be substituted. 


The next relationship between words is the case when two words have opposite meanings, the words such as male/female, old/new, interesting/boring are antonyms. What is interesting is that antonyms are divided into gradable and non-gradable antonyms. Gradable antonyms are opposites along a scale in that when someone says ‘I am not high’ it does not necessarily mean ‘I am short’. Non-gradable antonyms do not present such flexibility: when we say ‘I am married’ the only antonym available in this sentence would be ‘I am single’.


Sometimes the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another, broader term. Then the relationship between words can be described as hyponymy as in the case of words: vegetable andcarrot. A carrot is necessarily a vegetable, therefore the meaning of the word vegetable is included in the word carrot, so carrot is a hyponym of vegetable. In this relation the word vegetable is the superordinate (higher level term) of the word carrot.


A very common word type in the English language is that of homophone. Homophones are words which have different written forms, but the same pronunciation such as: right/write, to/too/two, bear/bare. Homophones are often mistaken for homonyms, but homonyms are words which have the same written or spoken forms and unrelated meanings, as for example: bat (flying creature) and bat (used in baseball), race (contest) and race (ethnic group). Still when a word has multiple related meanings then linguists speak of polysemy as with head for instance: head as a part of body; mind, or mental ability; a person in charge.


Another interesting relation between words is that of metonymy which is based on close connection of certain entities in everyday experience. The connection can be that of container-content, whole-part, or others. It is clearly visible in the following example ‘he drank the whole bottle’ when it is obvious that he did not drink the container, but the content of the bottle.




source:


http://www.putlearningfirst.com
http://www.englishbiz.co.uk
http://tripatlas.com
http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info

Essay Biography: Documentation

Documentation is the act or an instance of the supplying of documents or supporting references or records. Supporting references may be in the form of written information, media, and other content used. This also referred as the process of providing evidences.

In biography writing, evidences or supporting documents serves as ‘eye candy’ for the readers as it concretize the point that the writing wants to emphasize.

Graphical insertions like photos are like ads that trap the readers in a glancing moment. If a photo is interesting enough, the reader will stop to it and read the caption and if the interest stays there the title of the article is read next. If the beginning of the article is catching enough, the reader will read all of it. In conclusion only 5% of readers read an article but almost all the photos get noticed. There are times that pictures can do more to tell a story than words.

Photographs allow readers to see exactly what a person, place or event looked like out without having to infer from just a word description.  A picture also often times packs much more of an emotional punch than a paragraph and can do more to engage and interest readers. 

In general perspective, pictures are up for interpretations and allow readers to make their own judgments on what they see.

Essay Biography: Data Gathering

· used to discover information details to define the information structure

· helps to establish the priorities of the information needs

· further leads to opportunities to highlight key issues

· a complicated task especially in a large and complex system

· must be organized to ensure that nothing is overlooked and all details are eventually captured

· must identify most if not all problems, requirements and objectives

· must avoid repetitive actions

Two Important Points:

1. identification of information source including the manner of obtaining the information

2. use of the proper modeling to keep track of what has been done to date and what remains to be done for work completion

Steps in Gathering Information

· Schedule initial visit to interviewee’s location

· Gather and read background materials

· Establish data gathering objectives

· Determine what data gathering techniques to use

· Identify contact persons

· Schedule data gathering activities

· Identify deliverables

In Focus: Interview

   Interview is an art of encounter between a researcher and the source. John Brady, an American professor, defined interview process as “ the art of gaining trust, then gaining information.” It is easier for the researcher for the interviewer to get the views of his source if he has cultivated a friendship with him or her.

Types of Interview

1. Formal Interview –usually conducted after prior appointment with the source of interviewee. It can either be face-to face or through a written questionnaire. In both cases, the interviewee should know beforehand the subject r topic of the interview so that he can prepare his answer in advance.

2. Informal interview – a spontaneous shooting of questions o a person at the first opportunity. This is also known as “on-the-spot” interview.

Tips on good interviewing:

1. Always be prepared.

2. Ask the most important questions first.

3. Wait for the interviewee, don’t let him wait for you.

4. Don’t argue with your source.

5. Keep your personal bias to yourself.

6. Always remember that you are a researcher.

7. Expressing yourself counts a lot.

8. Suffer the interviewee.

9. Be polite.

10.Know when to introduce yourself.

11.Be sure you record your interview.